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| Goetheanum Grosser Saal by Taxiarchos228, (FAL 1.3), via Wikimedia Commons |
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: Bridging East and West through Polymathy
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s intellectual pursuits extended well beyond literature, encompassing fields such as colour theory, oriental religions, and natural sciences. His polymathic mind was not driven by a casual curiosity but by a deep quest to understand the unity of knowledge. As Aksinya Staar writes, Goethe was “one of the most dazzling polymaths of his time,” and his engagement with subjects ranging from geology to optics and Islamic studies demonstrates his multifaceted contributions (Staar, 2024).
He who knows himself and others, will also recognize that East and West are no longer separable
Goethe’s work reflects his interest in blending Eastern and Western thought, particularly during the era of German Idealism. This synthesis is vividly exemplified in his West-Eastern Divan, where he integrates Persian Sufi poetry, particularly inspired by Hafez, with German literary traditions. As Goethe writes in the Divan, "He who knows himself and others, will also recognize that East and West are no longer separable" (Goethe, 1819, p. 7). His engagement with Islamic philosophy and Sanskrit texts represents his openness to diverse traditions, challenging Eurocentric views and incorporating Eastern philosophies into the broader intellectual discourse (Staar, 2024). This cultural blending in the Divan exemplifies Goethe's drive to find unity in diversity, reflecting his broader quest for a unified knowledge across disciplines.
Goethe’s Work on Colour and Perception
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| Goethe’s color wheel, 1809 (PD), uploaded by Luestling at German Wikipedia, via Wikimedia Commons |
Goethe’s most significant scientific contribution is likely his work on colour theory. He spent decades studying how colour perception was shaped by both physical and psychological factors, challenging Isaac Newton’s scientific views of light and optics (Newton, 1704). While Newton focused on the objective physical properties of light, Goethe emphasized how colour was subjectively experienced by individuals, believing that “colour itself is a degree of darkness” (Goethe, 1907). This approach linked his studies of light with his broader philosophical interest in perception and subjectivity.
It takes a special turn of mind to grasp formless reality in its essential nature and to distinguish it from the figments of the imagination which...thrust themselves urgently on our attention with a certain semblance of reality"
As Goethe himself expressed, "It takes a special turn of mind to grasp formless reality in its essential nature and to distinguish it from the figments of the imagination which...thrust themselves urgently on our attention with a certain semblance of reality" (Goethe, 1907; Stopp, 1998).
The Influence of Eastern Thought on Goethe’s Polymathy
Goethe’s intellectual curiosity was deeply influenced by Eastern thought, particularly Sufi mysticism and Sanskrit philosophy. His West-Eastern Divan serves as a profound testament to his engagement with Islamic culture, drawing heavily from Persian Sufi poetry. Goethe’s openness to these diverse traditions allowed him to challenge the dominant creationist views of his time and explore new philosophical approaches to the nature of reality. His desire to bridge Eastern and Western traditions is reflected in his poetic and philosophical works, which embody a unified, cross-cultural intellectual pursuit (Goethe, 1819).
Contemporaries like Bernhard Hirzel, Switzerland’s first Sanskritist, shared this fascination with Eastern thought. Hirzel’s dedication to studying Sanskrit and his translations of works like Śakuntalā illustrate the continuity of Eastern influence in Europe during the 19th century. His scholarship contributed to a growing European interest in Indology and fostered a deeper understanding of Eastern philosophical traditions (Blaser, 2021; Karttunen, 2024).
However, this deep European interest in the East, which flourished during Goethe’s time, was largely lost in the subsequent centuries as Europe shifted its focus inward. It was only in the latter part of the 20th century that Western scholars and intellectuals began to re-engage with Eastern philosophies, driven by renewed curiosity about concepts like non-duality and interconnectedness, which are central to Buddhism and Hinduism. This resurgence has led to a more inclusive understanding of philosophical thought, with modern scholars re-examining figures like Goethe and Hirzel for their early contributions to this intellectual dialogue. As Sapien Think notes, the blending of Eastern and Western ideas has enriched philosophical, ethical, and practical perspectives, leading to a recovery of these influences in global intellectual history (Sapien Think, 2023; Macfie, 2019). This recovery is particularly crucial for understanding the concepts of reality and perception, which continue to challenge modern thought.
Historical Perspectives on Colour Perception Across Cultures
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| 闵齐伋 (Min Qi Ji or Min Ziqi), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons |
The light must travel directly in straight lines, striking the eye to produce perception, and when obstructed, colour becomes diffused and unclear
The study of colour perception has deep historical roots across various cultures. In ancient Greece, philosophers like Empedocles and Democritus studied the relationship between light and matter. Empedocles believed that objects emitted rays that interacted with the eye, creating the perception of colour. In contrast, Democritus argued that colour was not an intrinsic property of objects but rather a subjective experience shaped by perception (Hume, 1739).
In Asia, Mozi (5th century BCE) investigated optical phenomena and explored how light interacts with the eye to produce the perception of colour (Mozi, 2024).
Mo Tzu (Mozi) was an ancient Chinese polymath known for his contributions to optics and theories on light. He was one of the earliest thinkers to explore how light and colour interact with the human eye. Mozi developed a rudimentary understanding of how objects reflect light, which then enters the eye, enabling the perception of colour. This marked a significant step toward understanding optics in ancient Chinese philosophy.
As Mozi described the relationship between light and vision, he stated, "The light must travel directly in straight lines, striking the eye to produce perception, and when obstructed, colour becomes diffused and unclear" (Mozi, 2024).
This exploration into colour and light was groundbreaking and continues to influence modern thought on optics. A comprehensive analysis of Mozi's contributions to Chinese optics can be found in Erin Huang’s article "Double Take: Chinese Optics and Their Media in Postglobal China" (Huang, 2014).
Similarly, in India, Vasubandhu, a central figure in Yogācāra Buddhism, delved into the nature of perception, explaining that what we perceive—such as colours and forms—is not a direct reflection of external reality, but a projection of consciousness. In his work Viṃśatikā, Vasubandhu states:
Vijñaptimātram evedam asadarthāvabhāsanāt / yadvat taimirikasyāsatkeṣoṇḍukādidarśanam //
This translates to:
(All) this is indeed only consciousness, because of the appearance (in it) of non-existing objects, as the vision of the taimirika of an inexisting net of hairs etc.
Here, Vasubandhu compares perception to a person with taimirika (an eye disease) who sees nonexistent hairs or nets, underscoring his argument that what we perceive is often an illusion projected by the mind.
This Buddhist notion of perception challenges the idea of an objective external world and highlights the illusory nature of sensory experiences. A comprehensive analysis of this concept can be found in Arnold’s article on Buddhist epistemology, which explains how Vasubandhu advanced the view that mental constructs, shaped by karma and cognition, govern our experience of the world (Arnold, 2012).
Goethe’s Challenge to Creationism: The Role of the Intermaxillary Bone and Colour Theory
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| Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Discovered the Human Intermaxillary Bone on March 27, 1784 By Mikhail Dmitrievich Ezuchevsky, pastel. Available under public domain via the State Darwin Museum, Moscow. |
Goethe's engagement with natural sciences was deeply intertwined with his challenge to creationist beliefs, particularly the idea that humans were uniquely created and fundamentally distinct from other animals. In his discovery of the intermaxillary bone in humans, a structure previously thought to be absent in humans but present in other mammals, Goethe provided anatomical evidence supporting the concept of evolution and common ancestry. As Goethe himself remarked, "In man, as in animals, Nature has formed an intermaxillary bone, but so adapted to his frame that it is no longer noticed, and we were not aware of its existence" (Goethe, 1914). This discovery, although minor in terms of anatomy, had profound philosophical implications, aligning with Goethe’s broader intellectual goal of challenging the belief in divine, separate creation of humans, thereby promoting a holistic, naturalistic view of the human body’s development.
In man, as in animals, Nature has formed an intermaxillary bone, but so adapted to his frame that it is no longer noticed, and we were not aware of its existence.
Goethe’s discovery allowed him to argue that humans were not fundamentally separate from other animals, as creationists had long claimed. The presence of the intermaxillary bone, crucial to the formation of the upper jaw, demonstrated that human anatomy followed a natural evolutionary pattern, rather than being uniquely designed by divine intervention. This was a direct challenge to the theological belief that humans occupied a privileged and exceptional position in the natural order. Instead, Goethe’s work contributed to the growing body of evidence that all living creatures shared common structural features, an idea that would later be foundational to Darwin’s theory of evolution. This finding underscored the unity of life, much like Goethe’s other scientific work, such as his theory of colour, which similarly sought to explain natural phenomena through observation and understanding, rather than religious doctrine (Simpson, 1982).
Connecting the Intermaxillary Bone to Colour Theory and Phenomenology
Goethe’s approach to natural sciences, including his work on colour theory, was part of a larger philosophical quest to understand the natural world through both empirical observation and subjective human experience. His interest in the intermaxillary bone and colour theory both reflect his challenge to the idea of absolute, divine creation, as well as his belief that nature follows consistent, observable laws that apply equally to all phenomena, from bones to light.
In his phenomenology of colour, Goethe argued that perception is shaped not only by physical reality but also by the subjective experiences of the observer. This parallels his argument about the intermaxillary bone: just as human anatomy follows natural, universal principles, so too does the perception of colour reflect both objective physical properties (like light) and subjective human experiences. Goethe’s belief that the world is understood through observation rather than through theological or philosophical dogma ties these two seemingly disparate areas of research together. Both his work on anatomy and optics served to undermine the rigid, creationist framework that separated humans from the rest of nature and emphasized the interconnectedness of all life.
By insisting that human perception and anatomy are part of a natural order, Goethe advanced a view of the world that was in stark contrast to creationist thought. His colour theory in particular reflects a belief in the unity of subjective and objective experience, which was revolutionary for its time and foreshadowed later developments in phenomenology. Goethe’s scientific and philosophical pursuits were thus deeply interwoven, driven by his desire to challenge creationist views and promote a more integrated understanding of the natural world.
The Common Denominator: Perception vs. Objective Facts
A core theme in both Eastern and Western thought is the discrepancy between objective facts and deceptive perceptions. Goethe’s investigation into colour theory challenged the notion that facts about the world could be entirely understood independent of subjective perception. This idea extended beyond colour theory and reflected broader questions about the nature of reality. Similarly, both Mozi and Vasubandhu explored the role of perception in constructing reality, with Vasubandhu arguing that the self is a mere conceptual construct shaped by fluctuating mental processes (Vasubandhu, 2024).
Modern science continues to explore the relationship between perception and objective facts, revealing that perception is not a universal, God-given trait but is influenced by cultural and psychological factors. The exchange of ideas between East and West deepened the understanding of these concepts, laying the groundwork for modern theories about how humans experience the world.
Goethe’s legacy as a polymath demonstrates how the blending of disciplines and cultures can lead to new ways of thinking. His work on colour theory, Eastern religions, and the natural sciences reflected his lifelong quest to challenge traditional beliefs and seek unity in the diversity of intellectual traditions. Through the mutual exchange of ideas between Eastern and Western philosophers, Goethe helped to advance the understanding of perception and the nature of reality.
Now, I hope Goethe will not persecute me in nightmares for quoting him wrong, but I believe Staar’s selection of questions is one of the many great examples of how Goethe found unity in knowledge!
Modern STEAM education aims to help everyone think like a polymath. Educators and educational institutes are invited to get in touch with PS21 for custom-designed learning plans or explore the European Schoolnet Academy repository on Tabea Hirzel's learning strategies. You can check out more here: European Schoolnet Academy - Tabea Hirzel.
References
Blaser, C. (2021). Bernhard Hirzel: Swiss Scholar and Sanskritist. In The Intellectual Crossroads Between East and West (pp. 45-47). ETH Zurich. Retrieved from https://www.research-collection.ethz.ch/bitstream/handle/20.500.11850/529988/7/Blaser2021_.pdf
Goethe, J. W. von. (1907). Maximen und Reflexionen. Weimar: Verlag der Goethe-Gesellschaft. Available at Zeno.org: http://www.zeno.org/Literatur/M/Goethe,+Johann+Wolfgang/Aphorismen+und+Aufzeichnungen/Maximen+und+Reflexionen
Goethe, J. W. von. (1819). West-Eastern Divan. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/westeasterndivan00goetuoft/page/n7/mode/2up
Hume, D. (1739). A Treatise of Human Nature. Available at Liberty Fund: https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/bigge-a-treatise-of-human-nature
Karttunen, K. (2024). Who Was Who in Indology: Bernhard Hirzel. Retrieved from https://whowaswho-indology.info/3010/hirzel-bernhard/?print=print
Locke, J. (1689). An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Available at Liberty Fund: https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/locke-the-works-vol-1-an-essay-concerning-human-understanding-part-1
Macfie, A. L. (Ed.). (2019). Eastern Influences on Western Philosophy: A Reader. Edinburgh University Press. Available at PhilPapers: https://philpapers.org/rec/MACEIO
Mozi. (2024). The Essentials of Mohism. Available at Amazon: https://www.amazon.com/Essential-M%C3%B2z-i-Political-Dialectical-Writings/dp/0198848102
Newton, I. (1704). Opticks: Or, a Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections, and Colours of Light. Available at Internet Archive: https://archive.org/details/optickstreatise00newta
Sapien Think. (2023). The Influence of Eastern Philosophy on Western Thought. Retrieved from https://sapienthink.com/articles/the-influence-of-eastern-philosophy-on-western-thought
Staar, A. (2024, September 14). Goethe: The Intellectual Titan Who Ignited Europe’s Imagination. LinkedIn. Retrieved from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/goethe-intellectual-titan-who-ignited-europes-aksinya-staar-mcsme/?trackingId=Yrvq3wasR%2FWgxChZNFAg4Q%3D%3D
Staar, A. (2023). Aksinya Samoylova Author Page. Amazon. https://www.amazon.com/stores/Aksinya-Samoylova/author/B0BTFLH7RW?ref=ap_rdr&isDramIntegrated=true&shoppingPortalEnabled=true
Stopp, E. (Trans.). (1998). Maxims and Reflections. Penguin Classics. Available at Amazon: https://www.amazon.com/Maxims-Reflections-Penguin-Classics-Wolfgang/dp/0140447202
Vasubandhu. (2024). Treasury of Abhidharma and Yogācāra philosophy. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasubandhu
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